An Evolution of China
China’s government and way of rule
has changed numerous times throughout its history. To list just a few we begin with the
imperialist china with the emperor at the zenith of power (from as early as 221
BC up to the Qing Dynasty which ended in about 1911 AD), then it moved into the
Republic of China (until 1949), and finally became what it is today: The
People’s Republic of China. China’s government has changed drastically in a
period of a hundred years or so.
The
imperialistic dynasties persevered for almost two millennia of China’s history.
With the emperor at the top issuing decrees; upper level officials in charge of
economic, military, and educational affairs; and at the bottom, the local
authorities. Placement of these officials depended on how successful they were
on the imperial examination. As technologies advanced and western powers rose,
however, this style of governing became obsolete. Nearing the end of the Qing
dynasty, reformations began to take hold. In 1898, the 100 Days’ Reforms sought
to revolutionize education and the military, but due to the influence of Empress
Dowager Cixi, the reforms failed [1, pg. 199]. Soon after that the Boxer
Uprising arose (early 1900’s), opposing the intrusion of foreign entities. The
royal court gave their support to the Boxers, establishing an anti-foreigner
international policy [1, pg. 200-2]. Even more reforms followed the uprising
(beginning as early as 1901 and some as late as 1911); education was enhanced,
middle and elementary schools were established and the imperial examinations
ceased to exist. The military was also reformed again; military examinations
were abolished and an army ministry was created. There were some reforms that
impacted economic activities as well, including the founding of a ministry of
commerce. Liang Qichao, who had fled to Japan after the failure of the 100
Days’ Reform, proposed the shift to a constitutional monarchy; this proposition
led to the announcement of such a conversion by Empress Cixi in 1908 [1, pg.
203-4]. The year is now 1911, the Qing Dynasty is ending and a Republican China
is beginning.
The 10th of October,
1911, was the beginning of the end for the Qing court. New Army officers began
seizing cities and earning the support of the provinces. By December of 1911,
all of central and southern china had declared independence from the empire. As
a dying breath, the Qing court reached out to Yuan Shikai to come to its aid;
Yuan Shikai instead supported the republic, forcing the emperor to abdicate.
Beginning in 1912, Yuan Shikai ruled for 4 years (first as a president, then as
an emperor,) before his death in 1916. Until 1928, the land was ruled by
warlords with minimal, symbolic, rule from the government in Beijing [1, pg.
206]. 1919 saw the upheaval of the May Fourth Movement. This event was an out
lash from students in Beijing against the Versailles Peace Conference. There
was also the dismissal of three pro-Japanese officials and the resignation of
the Cabinet. In addition, China refused to sign the peace treaty put forth.
This incident caused a decline of tradition ethics, revolutionized literature
into the vernacular, and emancipated women [2, pg. 4]. In 1921, the Chinese
Communist Party (CCP) was founded and the Nationalist party was reorganized.
The Nationalists wanted to make China into a modern state and attempted so, but
also harassed the CCP. Japan began its encroachment into China in 1931, but
nothing was done about it until 1936; it was at this point that the Communists
and the Nationalists banded together to repel these invaders. Japan was defeated
and expelled in 1945; then the Nationalists vs. the CCP broke out again. These feuds
eventually lead into a full on civil war which ended with the Communist victory
in 1949 [1, pg. 206-7]. Republican China was finished as the CCP established a
strong communist state, The People’s Republic of China (PRC).
The PRC
came about in 1949 with Mao Zedong leading the CCP. Immediately following its
establishment up to 1952 was a period of consolidation; to fully establish its
control and influence. After the fleeing of the Nationalist officials many
posts were vacant; in order to keep the essentials running, the student body
was scrutinized [1, pg. 256]. With the Cold War looming, Mao finally decided
china could not remain an independent and unaligned power, and set off for a
meeting with Stalin in the Soviet Union in December of 1949. In June 1950 a
civil war erupted in Korea. North Korean troops were obliterating the South.
The United Nations sent in support for the South and the United States sent its
Seventh Fleet to guard the Taiwan Straits. By November, the UN’s forces had
pushed the Northern forces back up into their own land and were 50 miles within
the Yalu River. China was seriously threatened by this and sent their own
forces to push the UN’s forces back down to the 38th parallel. A truce
was agreed upon in June, 1953. The threats of war were used to strengthen support
for the communist regime. Feudalism was ended by the Agrarian Reform Law of
1950, ripping the ownership of land away from landlords and giving it to the
peasants. A Marriage Law was also passed which gave women the ‘freedom to
pursue their own love’ [1, pg. 258-9]. In 1955 a mass campaign warning
intellectuals to not oppose the First Five-Year Plan (a plan enacted September
1953, which ushered industrialization and collectivization of agriculture). The
support of the intellectuals were needed to promote economy and reform the
bureaucracy, according to Premier Zhou Enlai [1, pg. 265]. Mao’s regime sought to
revolutionize China into a major industrial power, respected amongst the world.
What
began as a feudal-imperialist kingdom has become a major nation; however, not
without its hardships and short-fallings. Countless lives were lost over the
years to infightings, invasions, world wars, and economic turmoil. The memory
of ancient China is a foundation on which the PRC was built, and will continue
to flourish on.
Works Cited
[1] J. A. G. Roberts, A Concise History of China. Cambridge, MA: HU Press, 1999,
pp. 200 - 265.
pp. 200 - 265.
[2] Dr. Luo, Literary Revolution. PowerPoint, 2013. Online.
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14522361_2
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